Varieties of enforcement strategies post-GDPR: a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) across data protection authorities

The study explores the divergence in data protection enforcement strategies among national agencies. Whereas the literature on cross-national enforcement practices is scarce, this study develops a scale for data protection enforcement strategies and measures and compares enforcement choices across agencies. Based on survey responses from 18 DPAs, interviews with DPA employees, and secondary sources on GPDR enforcement, the paper clusters DPAs based on enforcement strategies, analyzes cross-national variations, and investigates misalignments between strategy and actions. Using Fuzzy-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis, the paper tests how bureaucratic and political contexts–organizational capacities, budget sources, and issue saliency–impact enforcement choices. Almost half of the studied DPAs reflect high deterrence by their strategy, but for many of them, lack of resources and expertise inhibits the translation of strategy into practice. This study provides a starting point for understanding the national impacts of Europeanization post-GDPR, adding empirical support for theorizing about enforcement across the EU.