Smoking-induced microbial dysbiosis in health and disease

Smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer, pulmonary and cardiovascular dis-eases, but the precise mechanisms by which such risk is mediated remain poorly under-stood. Additionally, smoking can impact the oral, nasal, oropharyngeal, lung and gut micro-biome composition, function, and secreted molecule repertoire. Microbiome changes in-duced by smoking can bear direct consequences on smoking-related illnesses. Moreover, smoking-associated dysbiosis may modulate weight gain development following smoking cessation. Here, we review the implications of cigarette smoking on microbiome community structure and function. In addition, we highlight the potential impacts of microbial dysbiosis on smoking-related diseases. We discuss challenges in studying host-microbiome inter-actions in the context of smoking, such as the correlations with smoking-related disease severity versus causation and mechanism. In all, understanding the microbiome's role in the pathophysiology of smoking-related diseases may promote the development of ratio-nal therapies for smoking-and smoking cessation-related disorders, as well as assist in smoking abstinence.