Cognitive-Linguistic Profiles Underlying Reading Difficulties Within the Unique Characteristics of Hebrew Language and Writing System

While the multiple cognitive deficits model of reading difficulties (RD) is widely supported, different cognitive-linguistic deficits may manifest differently depending on language and writing system characteristics. This study examined cognitive-linguistic profiles underlying RD in Hebrew, characterised by rich Semitic morphology and two writing versions differing in orthographic consistency—a transparent-pointed version and a deep-unpointed version. A two-step cluster analysis grouped 96 s graders and 81 fourth graders based on their phonological awareness (PA), rapid naming (RAN), orthographic knowledge (OK) and morphological-pattern identification (MPI) abilities. Word-reading accuracy and fluency in both writing versions were also examined. The analysis revealed substantial variation in cognitive-linguistic functioning levels, identifying distinct homogeneous profiles at both ages. PA and RAN deficits were most significant across grades. A distinct OK deficit profile emerged among fourth graders, particularly manifested in Hebrew's deep-unpointed script. Moreover, the findings converge on the conclusion that while the phonological deficit is primary and persists over time, its importance is secondary to the main morphological deficit, reflecting a central independent factor in explaining RD in Hebrew. These results support a hybrid-dynamic perspective, emphasising how the relevance of different cognitive-linguistic deficits underlying RD varies with development, influenced by Hebrew's unique orthographic and morphological characteristics.